# Main features

Several years ago, I decided that the best way to learn object-oriented programming was to build my own object-oriented language. Prolog being always my favorite language, I chose to extend it with object-oriented capabilities. Strong motivation also comes from my frustration with Prolog shortcomings for writing large applications. Eventually this work led to the Logtalk programming language as we know it today. The first system to use the name Logtalk appeared in February 1995. At that time, Logtalk was mainly an experiment in computational reflection with a rudimentary runtime and no compiler. Based on feedback by users and on the author’s subsequent work, the name was retained and Logtalk was created as a full programming language focusing on using object-oriented concepts for code encapsulation and reuse. Development started in January 1998 with the first public alpha version released in July 1998. The first stable release (2.0) was published in February 1999. Development of the third generation of Logtalk started in 2012 with the first public alpha version in August 2012 and the first stable release (3.0.0) in January 2015.

Logtalk provides the following features:

## Integration of logic and object-oriented programming

> Logtalk tries to bring together the main advantages of these two programming paradigms. On one hand, the object orientation allows us to work with the same set of entities in the successive phases of application development, giving us a way of organizing and encapsulating the knowledge of each entity within a given domain. On the other hand, logic programming allows us to represent, in a declarative way, the knowledge we have of each entity. Together, these two advantages allow us to minimize the distance between an application and its problem domain, making the writing and maintenance of programming easier and more productive.

> From a pragmatic perspective, Logtalk objects provide Prolog with the possibility of defining several namespaces, instead of the traditional Prolog single database, addressing some of the needs of large software projects.

## Integration of event-driven and object-oriented programming

> Event-driven programming enables the building of reactive systems, where computing which takes place at each moment is a result of the observation of occurring events. This integration complements object-oriented programming, in which each computing is initiated by the explicit sending of a message to an object. The user dynamically defines what events are to be observed and establishes monitors for these events. This is especially useful when representing relationships between objects that imply constraints in the state of participating objects [Rumbaugh87], [Rumbaugh88], [Fornarino_et_al_89], [Razek92]. Other common uses are reflective applications like code debugging or profiling [Maes87]. Predicates can be implicitly called when a spied event occurs, allowing programming solutions which minimize object coupling. In addition, events provide support for behavioral reflection and can be used to implement the concepts of pointcut and advice found in Aspect-Oriented Programming.

## Support for component-based programming

> Predicates can be encapsulated inside categories which can be imported by any object, without any code duplication and irrespective of object hierarchies. A category is a first-class encapsulation entity, at the same level as objects and protocols, which can be used as a component when building new objects. Thus, objects may be defined through composition of categories, which act as fine-grained units of code reuse. Categories may also extend existing objects. Categories can be used to implement mixins and aspects. Categories allow for code reuse between unrelated objects, independent of hierarchy relations, in the same vein as protocols allow for interface reuse.

## Support for both prototype and class-based systems

> Almost any (if not all) object-oriented languages available today are either class-based or prototype-based [Lieberman86], with a strong predominance of class-based languages. Logtalk provides support for both hierarchy types. That is, we can have both prototype and class hierarchies in the same application. Prototypes solve a problem of class-based systems where we sometimes have to define a class that will have only one instance in order to reuse a piece of code. Classes solve a dual problem in prototype based systems where it is not possible to encapsulate some code to be reused by other objects but not by the encapsulating object. Stand-alone objects, that is, objects that do not belong to any hierarchy, are a convenient solution to encapsulate code that will be reused by several unrelated objects.

## Support for multiple object hierarchies

> Languages like Smalltalk-80 [Goldberg83], Objective-C [Cox86] and Java [Joy_et_al_00] define a single hierarchy rooted in a class usually named `Object`. This makes it easy to ensure that all objects share a common behavior but also tends to result in lengthy hierarchies where it is difficult to express objects which represent exceptions to default behavior. In Logtalk we can have multiple, independent, object hierarchies. Some of them can be prototype-based while others can be class-based. Furthermore, stand-alone objects provide a simple way to encapsulate utility predicates that do not need or fit in an object hierarchy.

## Separation between interface and implementation

> This is an expected (should we say standard ?) feature of almost any modern programming language. Logtalk provides support for separating interface from implementation in a flexible way: predicate directives can be contained in an object, a category or a protocol (first-order entities in Logtalk) or can be spread in both objects, categories and protocols.

## Private, protected and public inheritance

> Logtalk supports private, protected and public inheritance in a similar way to C++ [Stroustrup86], enabling us to restrict the scope of inherited, imported or implemented predicates (by default inheritance is public).

## Private, protected and public object predicates

> Logtalk supports data hiding by implementing private, protected and public object predicates in a way similar to C++ [Stroustrup86]. Private predicates can only be called from the container object. Protected predicates can be called by the container object or by the container descendants. Public predicates can be called from any object.

## Parametric objects

> Object names can be compound terms (instead of atoms), providing a way to parameterize object predicates. Parametric objects are implemented in a similar way to `L&O` [McCabe92], `OL(P)` [Fromherz93] or `SICStus Objects` [SICStus95] (however, access to parameter values is done via a built-in method instead of making the parameters scope global over the whole object). Parametric objects allows us to treat any predicate clause as defining an instantiation of a parametric object. Thus, a parametric object allows us to encapsulate and associate any number of predicates with a compound term.

## High level multi-threading programming support

> High level multi-threading programming is available when running Logtalk with selected backend Prolog compilers, allowing objects to support both synchronous and asynchronous messages. Logtalk allows programmers to take advantage of modern multi-processor and multi-core computers without bothering with the details of creating and destroying threads, implement thread communication, or synchronizing threads.

## Smooth learning curve

> Logtalk has a smooth learning curve, by adopting standard Prolog syntax and by enabling an incremental learning and use of most of its features.

## Compatibility with most Prolog systems and the ISO standard

> The Logtalk system has been designed to be compatible with most Prolog compilers and, in particular, with the ISO Prolog standard [ISO95]. It runs in almost any computer system with a modern Prolog compiler.

## Performance

> The current Logtalk implementation works as a trans-compiler: Logtalk source files are first compiled to Prolog source files, which are then compiled by the chosen Prolog compiler. Therefore, Logtalk performance necessarily depends on the backend Prolog compiler. The Logtalk compiler preserves the programmers choices when writing efficient code that takes advantage of tail recursion and first-argument indexing.

> As an object-oriented language, Logtalk can use both static binding and dynamic binding for matching messages and methods. Furthermore, Logtalk entities (objects, protocols, and categories) are independently compiled, allowing for a very flexible programming development. Entities can be edited, compiled, and loaded at runtime, without necessarily implying recompilation of all related entities.

> When dynamic binding is used, the Logtalk runtime engine implements caching of message lookups (including messages to self and super calls), ensuring a performance level close to what could be achieved when using static binding.

> For more detailed information on performance, see its dedicated section.

## Logtalk scope

Logtalk, being a superset of Prolog, shares with it the same preferred areas of application but also extends them with those areas where object-oriented features provide an advantage compared to plain Prolog. Among these areas we have:

Logic and object-oriented programming teaching and researching

  Logtalk smooth learning curve, combined with support for both prototype and class-based programming, protocols, components or aspects via category-based composition, and other advanced object-oriented features allow a smooth introduction to object-oriented programming to people with a background in Prolog programming. The distribution of Logtalk source code using an open-source license provides a framework for people to learn and then modify to try out new ideas on object-oriented programming research. In addition, the Logtalk distribution includes plenty of programming examples that can be used in the classroom for teaching logic and object-oriented programming concepts.

Structured knowledge representations and knowledge-based systems

  Logtalk objects, coupled with event-driven programming features, enable easy implementation of frame-like systems and similar structured knowledge representations.

Blackboard systems, agent-based systems, and systems with complex object relationships

  Logtalk support for event-driven programming can provide a basis for the dynamic and reactive nature of blackboard type applications.

Highly portable applications

  Logtalk is compatible with most modern Prolog systems that support official and de facto standards. Used as a way to provide Prolog with namespaces, it avoids the porting problems of most Prolog module systems. Platform, operating system, or compiler specific code can be isolated from the rest of the code by encapsulating it in objects with well-defined interfaces.

Alternative to a Prolog module system

  Logtalk can be used as an alternative to a Prolog compiler module system. Most Prolog applications that use modules can be converted into Logtalk applications, improving portability across Prolog systems and taking advantage of the stronger encapsulation and reuse framework provided by Logtalk object-oriented features.

Integration with other programming languages

  Logtalk support for most key object-oriented features helps users integrating Prolog with object-oriented languages like C++, Java, or Smalltalk by facilitating a high-level mapping between the two languages.